Film Theory and Criticism Essay

Maya Deren is known as one of those in Hollywood who spoke to everything that was not Hollywood. A film scholar and producer, in addition to other things, Maya Deren was conceived as Eleanora Derenkowsky in Kiev, Ukraine. She was naturally introduced to the film making industry, named after an Italian on-screen character. Subsequent to moving to Syracuse, New York, it was here where she started her enthusiasm for the communist development. It was additionally this move which impacted quite a bit of her life and her bearing in motion pictures. Maya Deren started her conventional instruction at Syracuse University where she was a functioning individual from the Trotskyist Young People’s Socialist League. She in the long run proceeded to work with Katherine Dunham where she got her opportunity to work in Hollywood. Utilizing the legacy she got from her dad, Maya Deren bought a second hand 16mm Bolex camera with which she made what is maybe considered as one of best movies, Meshes of the Afternoon. This was perceived as one of the main fundamental American vanguard films during the time. It was initially a quiet film that included no exchange, in any case, in 1957 a soundtrack was included by Teiji Ito. By 1943, she changed her name to Maya Deren. This was a direct result of her convictions around then and mirrored her political philosophies also. At this point, she had just extended her group of friends inside Hollywood to incorporate such others like Andre Breton, Marcel Duchamp, John Cage and Anais Nin. After a year, she began her subsequent film, At Land, and different movies, for example, A Study in Choreography for the Camera in 1945 and Ritual in Transfigured Time, which was made in 1946, which investigated the dread of dismissal and the opportunity of articulation in surrendering custom. Her endeavors didn't go unrecognized as in 1946 she was granted with the Guggenheim Fellowship for â€Å"Creative Work in the Field of Motion Pictures. † While not the best of her honors, she was additionally given the Grand Prix Internationale for her trial film Meshes of the Afternoon at the Cannes Film Festival. Her other incredible works remember Meditation for Violence, which was made in 1948. This film depicted the qualification among viciousness and excellence and is acted in by Chao Li Chi. Beside her profession in the film business, Deren additionally conveyed her movies and gave limited time visits everywhere throughout the world. During her vocation, she not just highlighted screenings in the United States, Canada and Cuba yet she additionally addressed broadly in video form hypothesis and vodoun. This, in any case, didn't prevent her from working up her movie profession and she proceeded to compose, immediate and even star in the majority of her movies. This was showed during her time making â€Å"New American Cinema† which gave proper respect to the trial underground film of the United States. The inheritance that Maya Deren left was something other than through the works that she made for the cinema. In 1986, the American Film Institute regarded her accomplishments by making the Maya Deren Award for free film making. There have likewise been various records of reverence being paid to her accomplishments, for example, the visit by the Horse and Bamboo Theater of the United Kingdom which made the Dance of White Darkness which is the tale of Deren’s visits to Haiti. The latest motion pictures made in her respect incorporate the film by Martina Kudlacek entitled In the Mirror of Maya Deren which highlighted the music of John Zorn. There was additionally a commemoration that was composed by Robert Stone to commend the accomplishments that Maya Deren had on the music business as well as to human expressions. While the impact of Maya Deren will without a doubt be recollected in her works, there is no other clear demonstration of her effect on the business as is appeared by the reverence that she is persistently allowed right up 'til today. Book reference: Deren, M(Orig. distributed 1963) Cinema: The Creative Use of Actuality in Mast, G and Cohen. M eds. (1985) Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings Oxford University Press, Oxford. Supplicate, M(2007) Avant-Garde Film: Forms, Themes and Passions Wallflower, London. Sitney, A(1979) Visionary Film: The American Avant-Garde 1943-78 second Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford

World Religion Essay Topics

World Religion Essay TopicsWorld Religion Essay Topics are ones that most high school students are curious about. These are topics that involve the study of a particular religion or religious affiliations.For example, if a student wishes to write an essay on American Religious History they would want to choose from topics that included; Founding Fathers of our country, Protestant's first steps in America, or Fundamentalists in the New Testament. As you can see there are many options to choose from. Essay topics that are discussed in high school class as well as college subjects that are used as source material for your writing assignment.Another way that high school students can learn about the World Religion Essay Topics is through discussions with a teacher. Many times you can ask your teacher about religious matters and he/she will be able to provide you with the information that you need to know about these subjects. There are many good writers who have written on these topics.Th e best way to learn about World Religion Essay Topics is to gain knowledge from teachers and other professionals. Once you have gained knowledge, you can then use that knowledge to inform your own writings. The World Religion Essay Topics will be making more interesting if the theme you are using has many different subject matter.You can also research on the Internet for ideas. You can find many websites that will offer you ways to write about topics for the World Religion Essay Topics. Theses websites will give you ideas as well as methods to write about the topic.To write World Religion Essay Topics it is very important that you understand the subject that you are writing about. Many times the World Religion Essay Topics can help you get a basic understanding of what the topic is all about. You should also be able to understand the background of the topic so that you can make better statements and arguments for your argumentative essays.World Religion Essay Topics is not something that is hard to write about. It is just about understanding the theme of the essay and the background information that are present. Knowing what the topic is about can make your essays more interesting and enjoyable to read.Before writing World Religion Essay Topics you should be able to identify the topic. Then you can start researching to see what you can find about that topic.

Types of Military Institutions in the U.S Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Kinds of Military Institutions in the U.S - Essay Example I likewise realized that we would be sneaking around Howard on the off chance that we needed to dispose of anything or he would probably have a coronary without further ado. I guess Marley and Howard were my closest companions, met when my significant other and I purchased the property over the road however we never truly turned out to be close until Tom moved out. Marley most established girl had died before I moved in however theirs a child in Pennsylvania who comes a couple of times each year when his wellbeing is acceptable. Marley and Howard both will reveal to you that their life has been honored as they’ve known and carried on with a delightful life, however it was hard for quite a while when Ariel passed on. Marley will get up certain mornings and state soon, little Ariel, soon enough. Early today Howards going to cut the grass as he despite everything calls it however everybody in the local knows he’s in the swing under the walnut tree and Mat from over the roa d cuts, happy to get 20 bucks and not somewhat shy about not telling Ms. Marley about it. Similarly also since for 5 or 6 years Marley has never referenced it, rather murmuring softly that shouldn’t be out cutting the grass at this age, to which he generally answers you take care women’s work, let me deal with the men’s work. What's more, that would end the contention, Marley just half contending in any case to perceive what Howard would state and it might be similarly as likely that Howard does likewise, figuring Marley’s’ seen him in the shade under the walnut tree at this point with Mat cutting the yard. It’s continued for a considerable length of time that way, no damage done. At long last when Howard was outside the house puttering with the yard we could get serious. Dark sacks for those we needed to give, little boxes for those we needed to have an evaluated, white packs for those the women at the congregation may peruse, and a clothin g bushel for magazines that we should save for specialties and we were prepared beginning. Marley began pulling them off the lower shelf’s while I, being taller, fired up top. We’d hold up until we had a decent size stack before experiencing them. At the point when we had bit to work with we plunked down and began pillaging. I was excited to discover more than 30 Little Golden Books for kids in flawless condition! Marley, you can’t hurl these out! Gee golly, the congregation nursery will locate an extraordinary use for them and I realize they will be very much valued, other than no more children expected, ya know. I was to some degree pitiless on the grounds that I realized they should at one time been perused to her kids. Might I keep one Marley? She looked amazed and said well yes obviously you can your greeting to anything here. I figured you may, don’t let me begin crying. We set everything except one in the congregation sack. At that point was Poor R ichards Almanac of 1898! Shouldn't something be said about the congregation? Clearly not worth assessing and they’d love to show it off. I concur and off it went. Next we went to a little arrangement of four marked Frederick Douglas books from 1934; these were energizing and took care of them option to be assessed. Still increasingly normal book, purchased as of late, Stephen King, Danielle Steele, Opera’

Artificiality and Fallibility in Northanger Abbey - Literature Essay Samples

Jane Austen, through the development of socially conscious female characters, is able to render a remarkably accurate depiction of the social structure present during the late 18th century. Her social commentary, however, highlights certain unbecoming qualities in both her protagonists and antagonists, particularly their artificiality. This feature of her writing is especially evident in her satiric novel Northanger Abbey. While Austen is clear in her criticism of characters such as Isabella and John Thorpe, neither of whom is in Catherine’s favor at the end of the novel, the author appears to be far more accepting of the affectedness of General Tilney, who is portrayed as a severe but fair man. Through the artificiality of her characters and the claims she makes about them, Austen weakens the motifs she intends to exemplify, making her an unreliable author. General Tilney is consistently illustrated as a strange man with a somewhat severe manner. Despite this, the text never truly suggests that he is a bad man. He is kind enough to invite Catherine to stay with the Tilneys at Northanger Abbey and, although he is concerned with superficial things such as the grandeur of his home and the wealth of his childrens’ spouses, the text suggests that he wants only the best for his children. Near the end of the novel, Catherine even admits that General Tilney’s interference in their marriage may have actually strengthened the bond between her and Henry, for which she thanks the general: â€Å"†¦the General’s unjust interference, so far from being really injurious to the their felicity, was perhaps conducive to it, by improving their knowledge of each other, and adding strength to their attachment, I leave it to be settled by whomever it may concern, whether the tendency of this work be altogether to recommend parental t yranny, or reward filial disobedience† (Austen 235). Despite Catherine’s fairly positive opinion of him at the end of the novel, the general still proves to be quite artificial early on when, after trying so ardently to impress her in hopes of securing a wealthy wife for Henry, he rudely casts her out of his home without explanation upon hearing from John Thorpe that Catherine’s family is poor. Austen tries to forgive General Tilney’s bad behavior by stating that his conduct may have strengthened the bond between Henry and Catherine, yet his actions were undeniably callous, regardless of the end product. His superficial treatment of Catherine is based entirely off of his focus on money, and this quality makes it difficult to accept the positive light that Austen attempts to shine on him at the end of the story, causing her to appear unreliable as an author. The most artificial character of Northanger Abbey is arguably Isabella Thorpe. Although she initially appears to be perfectly friendly and immediately forms a close bond with Catherine, the text makes it clear that she is somewhat superficial and would be content gossiping the day away. On several occasions, she gloats her apathy toward financial status, claiming that â€Å"[her] wishes are so moderate that the smallest income in nature would be enough for [her]. Where people are really attached, poverty itself is wealth; grandeur [she] detest[s]† (112), as well as that â€Å"a [small] income would satisfy [her]†¦ [She] hate[s] money† (128). The reader, however, later finds that upon learning of her fiancà © James Morland’s modest income, she immediately begins to flirt with Fredrick Tilney and eventually calls off the wedding. The reader even catches Isabella contradicting her earlier quotes when speaking to Catherine of her undesired gentleman caller, Joh n Thorpe: â€Å"You have both of you something, to be sure, but it is not a trifle that will support a family nowadays; and after all that romancers may say, there is no doing without money† (135). Even though Isabella claims on multiple occasions that finances do not concern her and that wealth even creates a deficit in relationships, she completely flips her argument in both her actions and opinions when she abandons James and tells Catherine that romance is not enough to support a family with modest income. Although Isabella is portrayed in an increasingly negative light as the plot progresses, she commits actions that are rather similar to those of General Tilney, but it is the products of their activities that appear to decide the author’s view of them. The characters’ actions are similar in that they both send away their respective Morlands upon finding that they are not wealthy, but their rewards differ: General Tilney is somewhat respected for the sternn ess that strengthened Henry and Catherine’s marriage, while Isabella is scorned by the narrator and essentially forgotten by the end. The narrator’s unequal judgment of each character again suggests that Jane Austen is unreliable in her portrayal of the morals she wishes to convey. In addition to the artificiality of Austen’s characters and the inconsistencies that they produce, the narrator also illustrates the same trait in her description of Catherine. Throughout Northanger Abbey, Austen repeatedly refers to Catherine as the story’s heroine. As early as the first pages of the novel, Austen builds Catherine up as the unsuspecting hero: â€Å"No one who had ever seen Catherine Morland in her infancy would have supposed her born a heroine† (13). Naturally, because of frequent recurrence of this description, the reader spends the entirety of the story waiting for Catherine to prove herself worthy of the title. Spoiler alert: she doesn’t. A heroine is admired for her courage and noble qualities, and although Catherine is consistently portrayed as having good nature and fair judgment, at no point does she truly verify that she is a great person herself. By failing to show what she repeatedly tells the audience to be true, Austen again i llustrates her unreliability as a narrator. Jane Austen is an author of critical acclaim within the literary world, but, like any other author, her writings exhibit many flaws. Her account of Northanger Abbey creates a social commentary in which she attempts to criticize the superficial foci of the era’s social scene. Her success in conducting an efficacious critique, however, is hindered by inconsistencies in the artificiality of her characters and their descriptions. Through the artificiality of her characters and the claims she makes about them, Austen weakens the motifs she intends to exemplify, making her an unreliable author in her account of Northanger Abbey. Bibliography Austen, Jane. Northanger Abbey. New York: Penguin Books, 1995. Print.

Institutional Profile and Types of Entrepreneurship Role of National Innovation System Components - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 14 Words: 4242 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2019/06/24 Category Management Essay Level High school Tags: Profile Essay Did you like this example? ABSTRACT This study advances scholarship on the institutions-entrepreneurship relationship. Previous studies propose that the dimensions of a country’s institutional profile (Kostova, 1997) directly impact entrepreneurial activities in general and regardless of the type (Valdez and Richardson, 2013; Stenholm, Acs and Wuebker, 2013). Furthermore, while there are several studies indicating that personal characteristics such as age, gender, employment status, household size, marital status may influence the type of entrepreneurship (Robichaud, LeBrasseur, Nagarajan, 2010; Block Wagner, 2010; Verheul Van Mil, 2011? Ashourizadeh, Chavoushi Schà ¸tt, 2014? Jensen, Rezaei, Wherry, 2014), there is a limited knowledge about the role of institutional structures. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Institutional Profile and Types of Entrepreneurship: Role of National Innovation System Components" essay for you Create order To address this gap, in this study, we cross level analyze 10776 individuals from 55 diverse countries to find out how countries institutional factors (e.g. countries’ institutional profile and national innovation system) encourage people to choose specific type of entrepreneurship. Using Hierarchical Linear Modeling, the findings indicate that neither institutional profile nor national innovation system factors solely determine the choice between opportunity motivated entrepreneurship (OME) and necessity motivated entrepreneurship (NME); however, OME tends to be higher in instances when supportive institutional arrangements (cognitive, normative and regulatory) get coupled with national innovation system factors. The study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of embedded agency within the institutional logics perspective. It bridges the literatures on individual entrepreneurship and the institutional logics perspective. Furthermore, the study provides context and evide nce on the impact of entrepreneurial education, access to the latest technology and support from venture capitalists on individuals’ entrepreneurial choice. Keywords: Entrepreneurship; National Innovation System; Country Institutional Profile INTRODCTION Do institutions have equal impact on everyone in the society? Under what circumstances individuals will may act differently in terms of choosing entrepreneurial activity? Which individuals are more likely to start a business to exploit un-exploited or under-exploited opportunity rather than starting a business merely out of necessity? These are key issues in examining how social, economic, cultural, and technological change occur? Yet, the literature is yet to fully address them. Though some scholars have examined the role of institutions (e.g. cognitive, normative and regulatory) on the rate of entrepreneurship (Valdez and Richardson, 2013) no one has explored which institutional factors are responsible for individuals choosing specific type of entrepreneurship. Under the institutional logics perspective, such questions can begin to be answered. The main focus of the institutional logics perspective (e.g. Thornton Ocasio, 1999? Thornton, 2002? Seo Creed, 2002? Thornton, Ocasio, Lounsberry, 2012? Pache Santos, 2012? Friedland, 2013) is in the way broader belief systems may shape the cognition, behavior, identity, and goals of economic actors. Under this view, entrepreneurs demonstrate individual agency subject to complex systems of institutional forces. While, usually individuals comply and agree with dominant institutional forces which shape their willingness and ability to act? Under specific circumstances and within certain contexts, individuals may contrast from each other in terms of engaging in business activities (Battilana D’Aunno, 2009? Lawrence, Suddaby, Leca, 2009). This situation of limited freedom due to institutions is known as embedded agency (Granovetter, 1985? Seo Creed, 2002? Garud Karnoe, 2003? Greenwood Suddaby, 2006? Green, Li, Nohria, 2009). To help address issues relating to embedded agency under the growing institutional logics perspective literature’s view of individuals’ future goals, we examine individuals’ choice in new venture activity. It seems plausible that regulative, cognitive, and normative institutions will affect the types of opportunities people see, the decision to start up a venture, the types of organizations they form, the financing arrangements, the management methods they employ, and the growth they achieve (Valdez and Richardson, 2013; Stenholm, Acs and Wuebker, 2013). The institutional context provides the tools, models, and constraints that shape the entrepreneur’s choices about each of these (Valdez and Richardson, 2013). In this study, we address the role that institutional factors play in shaping individuals’ behavior to engage in specific type of entrepreneurship. we do so by examining whether innovation level moderates the relationship between nation’s institutional profile and entrepreneurial choice. Entrepreneurial choice was selected as the appropriate outcome variable because not all types of entrepreneurship have equal impact on countries’ economic development (Acs and Varga, 2005). Results indicate that in countries where the innovation level is higher, supportive and facilitative cognitive, normative and regulatory may encourage potential entrepreneurs to get more engaged with opportunity entrepreneurial activities rather than necessity motivated ones. This study has several implications for the understanding of institutions, entrepreneurship, and opportunity recognition. First, it further demonstrates the value of the institutional logics perspective in explaining the nature of how institutions impact individuals. By highlighting a situation in which agents differ in their responses to institutional forces, the importance of one of the institutional logics perspective’s defining features, embedded agency, is further validated. Second, this study advances understanding about the entrepreneurial opportunity (Shane, 2000). Entrepreneurship scholars have increasingly grappled with whether personal or contextual characteristics matter most for successful entrepreneurship. Third, this study has important implications for the study of nations’ economic development. It does so by highlighting conditions in which national innovation system factors seem to have a stronger impact on potential entrepreneurs’ entrepreneuri al choice. Specifically, supportive institutional profile components coupled with higher levels of entrepreneurial education, access to the latest technology and support from venture capitalists, increase the likelihood of individuals getting engaged in opportunity motivated entrepreneurship rather than necessity motivated ones. THEORY DEVELOPMENT Institutional Logics, Embedded Agency, and Entrepreneurship The institutional logics perspective considers institutions as the outcomes of systems of interconnected and logically cohesive ideologies that have taken root within societies over long periods of time. These systems of institutional logics are socially constructed, historical outlines of material practices, conventions, values, beliefs, and rules by which individuals produce and reproduce their material subsistence, organize time and space, and provide meaning to their social reality (Thornton Ocasio, 1999). In sum, institutional logics are the underlying thought patterns and worldviews that support and shape human behavior. Each institutional logic includes several practices, beliefs, values, and rules. By participating with these institutions, agents gain identity, legitimacy, a basis of attention, a basis for strategy, and goals for the future (Ocasio, 1997). Relying on these insights, the notion of embedded agency is supported arguing that individuals are embedded agents using individual discretion within a complex institutional environment (Thornton, Ocasio, Lounsbury, 2012). In other words, people have freedom, but it’s limited. All the time, individuals’ activities are formed based on the logics they are surrounded with. Individuals end up choosing which goals to pursue based on the institutional logic that shapes their focus of attention (Thornton et al., 2012). Individuals’ focus of attention is shaped by: (a) the degree to which a particular institutional logic has been historically institutionalized within a given society (b) the degree to which agents are embedded in fields consisting of conflicting logics and (c) the situational context(s) (i.e. the immediate time and place) in which individuals find themselves (Thornton, et al., 2012). Institutional arrangements and entrepreneurial activity There have been quite a few studies of the relationship between entrepreneurial activity and what we are calling institutional variables, such as culture, government regulations, and economic policies. These are described later. There have also been a few studies examining the three pillars of institutions around entrepreneurship. Since it is difficult to develop and operationalize measures of institutional pillars, not many studies have investigated the role of institutional arrangements on entrepreneurship. While some of them viewed the Scott’s (1999) three institutional pillars as dependent constructs (e.g., Hirsch, 1997), other studies treated them as separate constructs that have different impacts on entrepreneurial activities (Busenitz, Gomez, Spencer, 2000). This is in line with previous research and arguments by Kostova (1997) and Scott (1995, 1998). Even accepting the argument that the three pillars have considerable conceptual overlap in the institutional literature, the argument by these scholars is that the constructs can be defined to focus on three distinct dimensions of institutions. The notion of a â€Å"country institutional profile† was introduced by Kostova (1997). Kostova believed that nation business behavior could be explained through the understanding of government policies, common shared knowledge by a society or culture, and the societal values and norms. However, this profile must be directed toward a specific sphere of activity or field and cannot be generalized across multiple domains. Busenitz et al. (2000) used Kostova’s approach using college business students to develop and validate measures of the regulative, cognitive, and normative dimensions of a nation’s institutional profile particularly around entrepreneurship activity. Cultural-Cognitive Components The cognitive institutional pillar refers to the people’s collective understandings of the social reality that is used as a reference of meaning within a society. This pillar states that society’s cognitions form the individuals’ interpretations and beliefs (DiMaggio Powell, 1983; Meyer Rowan, 1977; Scott, 1995). â€Å"Traits† research stream literature is an example of cognitive research in entrepreneurship, which goes back to Weber (1904) and McClelland (1961), who used the Protestant work ethic and the need for achievement to explain the apparent differences in entrepreneurship among societies. Thereafter, there has been an extensive body of entrepreneurship research investigating the relationship between different aspects of entrepreneurship and cognitive factors (particularly from entrepreneurial trait perceptive) such as innovativeness (McClelland, 1987; Schumpeter, 1949), risk-propensity (Sexton Bowman, 1983; Shaver Scott, 1991), persistence (Ne ider, 1987), internal locus of control (Shapiro, 1975; Shaver Scott, 1991), desire for personal control (Greenberger Sexton, 1988), need for achievement (McClelland, 1987; Shaver Scott, 1991), self-efficacy (Chen, Greene, Crick, 1998), and energy level ( Sexton Bowman-Upton, 1986). While some studies revealed that some traits may be universal to entrepreneurship activity (e.g., Baum et al., 1993; McGrath, MacMillan, Scheinberg, 1992), others believed that culture plays a significant role in entrepreneurial activity (Thomas Mueller, 2000). Due to the limitations of the individual traits approach, entrepreneurship scholars have shifted their focus toward national level cognitive factors, mostly the elements of national culture. While this approach avoids the issue that intrinsic personal traits can completely predict the individual behavior, the major limitations of studies adopting this approach (e.g., Baum et al., 1993; McGrath et al., 1992; Shane, 1992), are that they are mostly concentrated on the United States and Western Europe (Thomas Mueller, 2000), and are focused on Hofstede’s (1980:25) definition of national culture which is â€Å"the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another . . . [an d] includes systems of values† (Hayton, George, Zahra, 2002). Addressing these limitations, some recent studies (e.g., Valdez and Richardson, 2013; Stenholm, Acs and Wuebker, 2013), have attempted to incorporate measures of cognitive attributes into a broader set of institutional measures. Additionally, using available cross-national data on differences among entrepreneurs’ knowledge, beliefs, and understanding as indicators of differences in country-level cognitive institutions, these recent studies, have tried to lessen the limitations of the existing measures of cultural dimensions. The results acknowledge the notion that the variance of entrepreneurial cognitions across countries will result in different rates of entrepreneurship. However, they do not provide the full picture since they mostly miss other measures of institutional constructs including normative and regulative (Kostova, 1997; Busenitz et al., 2000). Normative Components Social norms, values, and beliefs related to human behavior form the normative institutional pillar (Scott, 1995; Busenitz et al., 2000). Within a society, perspectives are shared socially, embedded and transmitted by people (Kostova, 1997) and they gain legitimacy based on the extent to which the related action is getting accepted (Veciana Urbano, 2008). Translating these insights into entrepreneurship language, norms and values can define the desirability of entrepreneurship as a career within a society. In other words, individuals entrepreneurial intentions are influenced by the attitudes, beliefs and expectations of a social reference group which ca be family, relatives, and also a larger set of social references (national-level) (Krueger, Reilly, Carsrud, 2000; Stenholm, Acs Wuebker, 2013). Indeed, prior studies have found a positive correlation between the rate of new venture creation and a positive view toward entrepreneurs, and a negative correlation between undesirable so cietal view toward those who previously failed and the founding rates within a country. For instance, Lounsbury and Glynn (2001) found that the extent to which successful entrepreneurs are introduced publicly is significantly associated with entrepreneurial activity in a society. In fact, a favorable impression of entrepreneurial activity by educational system and the media can make access to necessary resources easier for entrepreneurs (Verheul, Wennekers, Audretsch, Thurik, 2002; Stenholm, Acs Wuebker, 2013). What makes the normative pillar distinct from the cognitive pillar is that the normative pillar is concerned with what people consider legitimate, acceptable ways of gaining something that has broad societal approval, while the cognitive pillar reflects principles that are believed and internalized by individuals (DiMaggio Powell, 1983). In other words, the normative elements are broader and more collective social pulses of what is legitimate in the view of the society; while the cognitive elements are aggregates of every single individual’s concepts and beliefs that drive individuals (Valdez Richardson, 2013). Regulatory Components The regulatory pillar refers to policies, rules and laws that shape individual behaviors (Scott, 1995; Veciana Urbano, 2008). This dimension of institutional arrangement can either promote or hinder entrepreneurship through defining the extent of risk involved in the formation and start of a new business (Baumol Strom, 2007). Further, regulatory institutions influence entrepreneurship by influencing the access to the resources required by individuals to create new businesses (Busenitz et al., 2000) or even the ease of starting a new business (Verheul et al., 2002). In general, entrepreneurial opportunities are higher in nations with less regulation, free markets and few barriers to entry (El-Namaki, 1998) and small-business sector is larger where business start-up costs are lower (Ayyagari, Beck, Demirguc-Kunt,2007). In countries with unstable regulatory settings and lack of intellectual property rights, respectively, entrepreneurship opportunity cost may increase significantly a nd individuals may be discouraged to specialize or exploit their capabilities to the fullest (Aidis, 2005; Autio Acs, 2010). Further, weak support from regulatory institutions may result in unproductive country-level entrepreneurship (Webb, Tihanyi, Ireland, Sirmon, 2009) and excessive bureaucracy, taxation and other types of regulations have negative effects on entrepreneurial activities and new venture creation (Webb et al. 2009). Fiscal incentives, tax rates, subsidies, labor market regulation, and bankruptcy legislation are other examples of how regulations can directly impact entrepreneurship in a society through determining the rewards and the risks of the various occupational opportunities (Wennekers, Uhlaner, Thurik, 2002). In fact, laws and regulations that restrict economic freedom result in enhancement of the transaction cost for entrepreneurially-oriented individuals who want to launch a new venture. Thus, regulatory arrangements can be set in a way to manipulate this equation to make â€Å"new venture creation† easier for entrepreneurs (McMullen, Bagby Palich, 2008). Types of Entrepreneurial Activity In the previous sections, it was mentioned that countries institutional profile components (cognitive, normative and regulatory) have positive impacts on the rate of entrepreneurship in general. Entrepreneurial activity can be conceptualized as either opportunity or necessity motivated. Opportunity motivated entrepreneurship activities are embarked upon in the spirit of innovation (Wennekers Thurik, 1999) and profit and growth (Carland, Hoy, Boulton, Carland, 1984) or may entail the leveraging of existing information in a new way (Kirzner, 1973, 1985, 1997). On the other hand, a necessity-motivated venture may be undertaken to provide employment and meet financial obligations out of economic necessity (Reynolds et al., 2002). An opportunity-motivated entrepreneur might create a new company and establish a new venture even he or she may have other occupations to satisfy their financial needs. On the other side, a necessity-motivated entrepreneur would generally start a new business to provide self-employment. Based on these insights, it could be argued that opportunity-motivated entrepreneurship has the potential to advance a country’s economy, while necessity entrep reneurship mainly sustains it. Previous research has indicated that necessity- and opportunity-motivated entrepreneurship should be considered separately when attempting to understand how context relates to the level of entrepreneurial activity (Valdez Richardson, 2013). Institutions appear to shape both the type and the level of entrepreneurial activity. In a study using 2001 GEM data, two elements of the culture-cognitive pillar were significantly related to these two branches of entrepreneurship (Morales-Gualdrà ³n Roig, 2005). Specifically, when respondents felt that they had the skills, knowledge, and experience to start a business, they were more likely to engage in both opportunity- and necessity-motivated entrepreneurship. When respondents were fearful of starting a business, they were less likely to engage in either type of entrepreneurship. The environmental context of countries may support one type of entrepreneurship more than the other (Valdez and Richardson, 2013). Opportunity motivated entreprene urship is more consistent with the Schumpeterian innovations which contribute significantly to economic growth through providing greater job growth, exports, and exploitation of new market niches (McMullen, Bagby Palich, 2008). While previous studies believe that opportunity entrepreneurship has a positive significant effect on economic development, Acs and Varga (2005) go beyond that and argue that necessity motivated entrepreneurship has no effect (Acs and Varga, 2005). Accordingly, it would be critical for countries to encourage their potential entrepreneurs to choose opportunity motivated entrepreneurship over necessity motivated ones. The environmental context of countries may support one type of entrepreneurship more than the other (Valdez and Richardson, 2013), so it can be assumed that set of institutional structures that provide an opportune environment for innovations and knowledge-driven economic growth would increase the probability of people being engaged more in opportunity motivated entrepreneurship. Necessity/Opportunity entrepreneurship and country-level innovation As it was described earlier, necessity entrepreneurship comprises of individuals who decide on entrepreneurship without considering any entrepreneurial opportunity, because they do not have a better employment alternative, and opportunity entrepreneurship, which constitutes the voluntary decision to enter the entrepreneurial career in order to exploit an unexploited or underexploited entrepreneurial opportunity, either imitative (Kirznerian) or innovative (Schumpeterian), even if other employment alternatives are available (Reynolds et al., 2002) Accordingly, it can be expected that the necessity entrepreneurship and opportunity entrepreneurship may have different relationships with level of innovation, since the two activities are fundamentally different (cf. Reynolds et al. 2002). In the case of necessity entrepreneurship, it is highly likely that the entrepreneurial action is related to a negligible extent of innovation, and therefore, that necessity entrepreneurship either has no significant relationship or even a negative relationship with innovation, when the aggregated national level is taken into consideration (Mro?ewski Kratzer, 2016). This tendency is a result of the fact that necessity entrepreneurs, e.g. unemployed persons, tend to have less human capital and entrepreneurial talent (Lucas 1978; Thurik et al. 2008) and are less likely to sustain growth-oriented firms (Wong et al. 2005; Shane 2009). Necessity entrepreneurship may therefore be better classified as self-employment rather than as growth entrepreneurship (Anokhin and Wincent 2012). If a country’s entrepreneurship structure is dominated by this kind of unproductive entrepreneurship, growth-oriented entrepreneurial strategies (e.g. innovation) are not likely to be prevalent among ent repreneurs, which results in less innovation on the national level. Consequently, the relationship between innovation and necessity entrepreneurship is either insignificant or negative (Mrozewski, Kratzer, 2016) On the other side, opportunity entrepreneurs have the motivations to advance their economic, social or mental status through the pursuit of a certain entrepreneurial opportunity. It is very common for opportunity entrepreneurs to give up employment alternatives and in effect face high opportunity costs. This is why opportunity motivated entrepreneurship is characterized by high levels of risk. This situation translates into a high degree of motivation, a strong goal orientation as well as a more sophisticated business strategy (e.g. innovation), which guarantees satisfying returns in order to level opportunity costs (Mrozewski, Kratzer, 2016). At an aggregated level, therefore, it is expected that countries with lower innovation levels will have relatively high necessity-driven entrepreneurial activity and countries with higher innovation levels will have relatively high opportunity-driven entrepreneurial activity. National innovation system The theoretical framework that allows scholars to identify the distinctive aspects of a nations innovation environment that provides people with more opportunities is reflected in National Innovation Systems which refers to the flow of knowledge, technology and information among people, enterprises and institutions which is key to the innovative process at the national level (OECD, 1996, Bartholomew, 1997). Country-specific general and structural components of society (such as political and educational systems) influence the accumulation and diffusion of knowledge required for innovation. Institutional perspectives mention two ways in which national institutional arrangements impact country patterns of innovation. First, the societal institutions which support industrial innovation vary substantially country by country. For example, in many countries, the policies and practices of a nations universities and government research institutes are shaped by the nations singular historical development. In other words, since technology-driven industries are often supplied by universities and research institutes for knowledge and human capital, the technological performance of a countrys firms is influenced by the features of these institutions (Ergas, 1987; Nelson, 1993; Porter, 1990). Second, national context influences the institutional arrangements and behavioral patterns of firms and indivi duals. For example, the organization of work and patterns of communication within and between firms, or between firms and universities reflect broader societal characteristics that have been imprinted on firms and institutionalized over time (Kogut 1991; Powell and DiMaggio 1991). A country’s innovative performance extremely relies on the way these elements work with each other to create and diffuse knowledge and technology. For example, public research institutes, academia and industry serve as research producers carrying out RD activities. On the other hand, governments either central or regional play the role of coordinator among research producers in terms of their policy instruments, visions and perspectives for the future (Bartholomew, 1997). Furthermore, in order to enhance innovation level in a country, innovative actors must get coupled with each other and the government has to promote and activate trust among the different innovation actors (Chung, 2002). These corporations could take place in forms of joint research, personnel exchanges, cross patenting, and purchase of equipment (OECD, 1997). NIS has been captured in different ways in previous studies (Bartholomew, 1997, Godin, 2009). Examples include capital market actors like venture capitalists; a skilled labor force, laws related to the use of information technology as well as the availability of the latest technologies; and the proximity of universities (Bruno and Tyebjee, 1982; Lee, Florida Acs, 2004; van De Ven, 1993). In following section, I am going to see how the components that shape a nation’s innovation performance, affect the likelihood of potential entrepreneurs getting involved in opportunity motivated entrepreneurship, which is significantly related to the level of innovation in a country. Entrepreneurship Education and Training There are several arguments for why individuals differences in terms of education play an important role in explaining the discovery of and opportunities. There is a network argument that relates education to opportunity recognition. Whereas prior research has often focused on how access to resources is important after opportunities for business creation have been recognized (Steven- son and Jarillo, 2007), Arenius Clercq (2005) argue that opportunities are recognized by some individuals and not by others based on their differential access to resources. More specifically, they reason that individuals education may enhance opportunity recognition through the facilitation of access to knowledge, e.g., connections to other knowledgeable others such as alumni network contacts (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990; Burt, 1992). It can be also argued that individuals educational level will positively affect the likelihood to perceive opportunities because highly-educated individuals have a broader knowledge base to draw from and thus a higher likelihood that they can relate this knowledge to potential entrepreneurial opportunities (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990). training and education specifically in the field of entrepreneurship, in one hand, enhances populations ability to recognize and pursue entrepreneurial economic opportunities and on the other hand provides people with the necessary technical skills and competencies required to launch new start-up firms (Hynes, 1996; Henry, Hill Leitch, 2005). Based on the arguments above, it can be hypothesized that: Hypothesis 1: Countries’ institutional profile will be more significantly positively associated with OME in countries with higher levels of Entrepreneurship Training and Education. University–Industry Collaboration The collaboration between universities and the industry is increasingly perceived as a vehicle to enhance innovation through knowledge exchange. The collaboration between industries and universities is defined as interaction between any parts of the higher educational system such as universities and industry aiming mainly to encourage knowledge and technology exchange (Stenholm, Acs and Wuebker, 2013). Countries vary in the extent to which firms collaborate with research institutions and higher educational system, reflecting differences in the commercial orientation of academia (Kenney, 1986; Ergas, 1987). Promoting university–industry collaborations results in improvemnets in innovation and economic competitiveness at institutional levels (e.g. countries and sectors) through knowledge exchange between academic and commercial domains (Perkmann et al., 2013). Additionally, linkage between universities and industries has been accepted as a determining tool for enhancing organizational capacity in open innovation — where an organization employs external networks in developing innovation and knowledge (Dess Shaw, 2001), as a complementary option to traditional internal RD (Harvey Tether, 2003). Summarizing these arguments, it can be stated that, collaboration between universities and industry is largely seen as one approach to improve innovation in the economy by facilitating the flow and utilization of technology-related knowledge and experience across sectors (Inzelt, 2004; Perkmann, Neely Walsh, 2011). Since, opportunity motivated entrepreneurship is characterized by innovation level, it can be assumed that higher levels of university–industry collaborations, may induce higher opportunity motivated entrepreneurial activities. This leads to the second hypothesis: Hypothesis 2: Countries’ institutional profile will be more significantly positively associated with OME in countries with higher levels of University–Industry Collaboration. Availability of Latest Technology The most traditional way that comes to our minds in terms of knowledge flow in the innovation system may be the diffusion of technology as new equipment and machinery. Nations vary substantially in manner in which technology is diffused within the society (Bartholomew, 1997). In some nations technology diffusion is considered to be an explicit part of the governments mandate; diffusion-oriented innovation policies†. Accordingly, programs, institutions and structural linkages are established by government expressly for this purpose of facilitating industrys appropriation of new scientific developments (Ergas, 1987; Ostry, 1990). Most studies show that technology diffusion at country level has positive impacts on productivity and innovation. The dissemination of technology is also shown to be as important as RD investments to innovative performance in many cases (Lundvall, 2007)

An Influential Period Of Christian History - 1256 Words

One of the most influential periods of Christian History began in 1096, after Pope Urban II officially launched the First Crusade in an attempt to regain Jerusalem from its Muslim occupants. As with any other significant historical event, many people rallied in support of the war, while others demanded peace. Hadewijch of Brabant, a renowned thirteenth-century mystic and Beguine stood in opposition to the Crusades as a whole. Her status as a highly respected mystic, coupled with a unique voice and perspective, all gave Hadewijch a substantial platform on which to preach peace over war, love over violence, and forgiveness instead of revenge. Unlike her contemporary, Bernard of Clairvaux, Hadewijch used her opportunity to teach accurate†¦show more content†¦Bernard’s rhetoric relies heavily on persuasion though justification, especially in his calls to action for the Second Crusade. Though the official papal bull came from Pope Eugenius III, ultimate motivations to figh t came from the Cistercian (Allen and Amt 125). Bernard’s rallying speeches, known to be in the library at Brabant, urged crowds of would-be mercenaries and sympathetic laymen to turn their attention to the Latin East. As a literate Beguine with unlimited access to the library, Hadewijch would have read and understood the rhetorical strategies employed by Bernard in his messages urging Christianity to action. While Jerusalem teetered on the brink of collapse, Edessa and Antioch remained prisoners in the hands of heretical Muslims. Bernard’s words echoed through Europe, as he commanded those soldiers of God into a call to action: And now, for our sins, the enemies of the cross have raised blaspheming heads, ravaging with the edge of the sword the land of promise. For they are almost on the point, if there be not one to withstand them, of bursting into the very city of the living God, of overturning the sanctuaries of our redemption, of polluting the holy places of the spotless Lamb with purple blood. (Bernard of Clairvaux 126) Clearly, the rhetoric of the Cistercian rang true with Crusading soldiers, as thousands marched to the Holy Cities to defend and reconquer. As Joel Regnard points out in his

Health and Safety at Work Method and Results

Question: Discuss about theHealth and Safety at Work for Method and Results. Answer: Article to be critically analyzed: Zhuang, Z., Coffey, C.C., Jensen, P.A., Campbell, D.L., Lawrence, R.B. and Myers, W.R., 2003. Correlation between quantitative fit factors and workplace protection factors measured in actual workplace environments at a steel foundry. AIHA Journal, 64(6), pp.730-738. Title The title succinctly portrays the pivotal theme off the research (Zhuang et al. 2003). Abstract The abstract has comprehensively and in a precise manner summarized the key structure of the research encompassing the objective, method, results and conclusion. Background of the Study The main article does not contain any separate heading of introduction or background. However at the beginning of the article several findings pertaining to past research works have been provided to give an insight and overview on the topic of research. Information acquired from sources like that of published journal articles have been used to find out extensive evidences from previous findings and furthermore the gaps identified in those researches paved the way for the scopes and potentials pertinent to the study undertaken. The central idea for the research has been reported of generating out of the idea that quantitative fit factors (FFs) are reliable indicators of performance of the respirators in the context of a definite workplace. Various fit testing methods were examined by means of appropriate procedures to examine the efficacy of the protocols through comparative analysis (Coffey et al. 2002). The protection conferred by these respirators in the definite workplace setting has also been verified and cross-checked through several experiments. The extent of alignment to the guidelines as lay down by authorities like NIOSH and other have also been dealt with in these works to assess the level of respiratory protection contributed (Johnston et al. 1992). Moreover, research also have highlighted on simulated workplace protection factor (WPFs) for various class of respirators and the relative effectiveness of their use (Cohen et al. 2001). However, no concrete proof of research having focused on assessing the correlation between WPF and FF has been reported. Therefore the present study aimed to explore the impacts of good and poor fitting half face piece, air purifying respirators on protection in actual workplace setting in the context of a steel foundry apart from identifying the correlation between WPF and quantitative FF. Alongside these objectives, the factors influencing the correlation of two variables has also been recognized and discussed explicitl y. Thus the background for the study has been adequately addressed. Overview of Research Design The protocol set for the present study in keeping with the materials and methods are found to be amenable to the research methodology referred to in previous studies that satisfactorily catered to the research problems. The detailed description of the facility selection, worker selection, instruction and monitoring along with other detailed approaches such as that of measurements carried out with respect to the workers facial dimensions, respirator selection, further inspection and ultimate utilization of the tool have all been mentioned with enough clarity and fair explanations. Additionally the fit test procedures used to conduct the research has also been highlighted thereby making it easier for comprehension and reproducing the methods for future research purpose. Therefore the methodology adopted in undertaking the research study has been found to be valid, ethical, reliable and satisfactory. Rationale for the incorporation of definite study protocol has also been mentioned as w ell that rendered transparency and reliability to the work that was pursued (Kothari 2004). Sampling The sample size of the projected study was found to incorporate 15 participants in the study who were accustomed to doing diverse activities such as that of burning, welding and chipping. A total of six fit tests have been reportedly performed on the participants with two respirator models each with three sizes. The frequency of usage of the respirator by the subjects were also streamlined and regulated. The WPF sampling consisting of the ambient sampling, in-facepiece sampling and usage of personal sampling pumps, working blank and manufacturers blank have been sufficiently followed and stringently regulated throughout the entire duration of the study. The study protocol and the sampling procedure were compliant with the existing guidelines for procuring optimal outcomes out of the study. Thus the sampling is found to be convenient to carry out the study in a satisfactory fashion (Mugo 2002). Data Collection All the data that has been procured in the study has no clear-cut information regarding whether they have been collected in a manner that conforms to the ethical and legal frameworks as promulgated by appropriate authorities. Nothing has been mentioned regarding the ethical and legal considerations. Therefore it is not very much clear whether this study has adequately abided by the guidelines as proposed by the governing authorities and has the right to approve and formally direct the study (O'Leary 2013). Data Analysis The collected data from the study were analyzed and appraised by means of following the most suitable and rigorous statistical tools. Correlation analysis with WPF as the dependent variable and FF as the independent variable was done to infer about the strength of relationship between the two variables. Regression analyses were done by virtue of utilizing the log transformed table. The statistical Analyses System Software (SAS) was applied throughout for undertaking the robust and rigorous statistical calculations. Further novel techniques concerning the use of microcomputer spreadsheet technique was used for conducting the study for getting the picture about the relative distribution for fitting in a smooth curve (Kraemer and Blasey 2015). Evidence Utilization The results in connection to the research undertaken have been presented in a very elaborate and comprehensive way throughout the article. Findings have also been reported in the form of tables and statistical data and illustrations through regression and scatter plot to allow the readers to get a glimpse of the findings in a pictorial manner. The important finding of the study suggests that at instances of donning similar respirator, significant correlation exists between WPFs and FFs. Further the efficacy of performing the fit tests for the sake of identifying the workers who have poor respiratory fit is a vital revelation. Support for laboratory tests as surrogate tests for workplace tests in identifying the respiratory fits for the vulnerable individuals. The limitations of the study have also been suggested thereby adding to the reliability and authenticity of the research conducted. Therefore careful analysis and evaluation of the outcomes mentioned in course of the study rende r enough scope for future implications and investigations in the research of occupational health and safety. References Coffey, C.C., Lawrence, R.B., Zhuang, Z., Campbell, D.L., Jensen, P.A. and Myers, W.R., 2002. Comparison of five methods for fit-testing N95 filtering-facepiece respirators. Applied occupational and environmental hygiene, 17(10), pp.723-730. Cohen, H.J., Hecker, L.H., Mattheis, D.K., Johnson, J.S., Biermann, A.H. and Foote, K.L., 2001. Simulated workplace protection factor study of powered air-purifying and supplied air respirators. AIHAJ-American Industrial Hygiene Association, 62(5), pp.595-604. Johnston, A.R., Myers, W.R., Colton, C.E., Birkner, J.S. and Campbell, C.E., 1992. Review of respirator performance testing in the workplace: issues and concerns. The American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 53(11), pp.705-712. Kothari, C.R., 2004. Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age International. Kraemer, H.C. and Blasey, C., 2015. How many subjects?: Statistical power analysis in research. Sage Publications. Mugo, F.W., 2002. Sampling in research. O'Leary, Z., 2013. The essential guide to doing your research project. Sage. Zhuang, Z., Coffey, C.C., Jensen, P.A., Campbell, D.L., Lawrence, R.B. and Myers, W.R., 2003. Correlation between quantitative fit factors and workplace protection factors measured in actual workplace environments at a steel foundry. AIHA Journal, 64(6), pp.730-738.